I. Introduction
Women’s movement in India can be seen in a wide ranging ways. They created organization and were linked to the freedom movement against British rule in Indian nationalist movement. They struggle against women’s problem including rape, domestic abuse the right for equal pay, and the right to better health, education and inheritance. The movement highlight that women in India have been involved in the public sphere and issues of women’s right since long time.
The participation of women in the public sphere before and after gaining independence is slightly contradictory with the image portrayed by Western people that those women in South Asia tend to play traditional role as women doing the activities in domestic sphere only. They are often portrayed as women who do the housework, devoted, and self-sacrified.
Women’s movement in colonial India had strong links with nationalist movement. The participation of women in India’s freedom struggle has significant, especially in Gandhi’s movement. After gaining independence, women’s movement in the early freedom still contributed to recovery women who become a victim in partition. Then they are also involved in political arena. Nowadays, women issues including dowry, sati, illiterate, rape, and domestic violence have become triggers to make the movement gaining in equality and against discrimination of women.
However, their movement related to the custom and religion that was attached to the way of thinking of the Indian society. This condition sometimes makes women’s movement become limited. In this paper, I will describe the achievements and limitations of women’s movement in India; I am going to discuss the dynamic of women’s movement in India through women’s association, women’s organizations, and women’s participation in India’s freedom for struggle and post independence. I will study the type of social movement that women brought during their movement. I also will discuss the limitation and obstacle during their movement.
II. Women’s Movement in Colonial India
A. The Emerge of Women’s Association
The existence of women’s organizations is basic of women’s movement, because women’s organization is an instrument to see and analyze a women’s movement. In the case of India, before India gain independent, women’s associations in small group started as an embryo of women’s organization that formed by men within their families and communities[1].
Some examples of women’s association including in Bengal found by Keshub Chandra Sen, the charismatic leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He formed new association for women of their families through develop educational programs, a women’s journal and prayer meeting. Then, there was Arya Mahila Samad in Bombay for the general uplift and enlightenment of women that has goal to bring women in the public world to help during emergencies such as food, famine and plagues[2]. In the Parsee community, there was women’s association known as Stri Zarthosti Mandal (Parsee Women’s Circle). This association had emerged within a-Mr.Naoroji Patuck family. He set up class in his home. In 1903, fifty women enrolled the class, and then the class becomes an organization that has wide range activities in 1920 and 1930s[3]. Another association was Anjuman-e-Khawatin-e-e Islam (The Moslem Women Association) in the Punjab. By 1915, women of the Mian family were playing a leading role in the All Indian Muslim Women’s conference[4].
Those women’s associations were founded by men and are in small scale and local context. The reasons men create the associations for women because some of men who called as reformers feeling deeply touched by the poverty suffered by women[5]. The men’s ideas were brought women to the public work, found good education and can help people who under disaster struck. They hope that women who involve in women’s associations could run their household by having educated and modernized women who are also familiar with social field and charitable area.
B. Women’s Organization and Their Achievements
Realizing that women’s associations have limitation to take action and propose solution about women’s problem, women activists identified that they need permanent association for progressing of women in India. They started to think an organization that concern and discuss the women’s issues was important. They formed women’s organizations in national scale. It means that its scale larger than women associations.
After World War I, there were three major organizations[6]; the Women’s Indian Association (WIA), the National Council of Women in India (NCWI), and the All-India Women’s Conference (AIWC). These organizations emerged between 1917 and 1927. The WIA[7], born in 1917 in Madras, covered members mostly from the Tamil Madar Sangan (Tamil Ladies Association) and had joint with British women in forming the National Indian Association to promote female education. Member of the WIA’ opens to both Indians and Europe. The first presidents of WIA were Annie Bessant and Margaret Cousins, and secretaries were Mrs.Malati Patwardhan, Mrs.Ammu Swaminathan. The WIA competed for women’s attention with the self-respect movement. The self-respect movement had a larger agenda than women’s right; its goal was to establish a society from the domination of the priestly caste, with justice and equality for all human beings. WIA had monthly journal, Stri Dharma, published in English, including article about women published both in Hindi and in Tamil. The second organization, NCWI[8] was a national branch of the International Council of Women. The members of NCWI were women of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta who have network for their various club and association to the International council of women. NCWI led by Mehribai Tata from the Parsee family. The organization’s activities related to educated women and high-class women in upper caste.
AIWC is the most influential women’s organization in women’s movement in India at that time. The AIWC, found in 1927, had large number of member until 25,000 in 1945. At the first, AIWC concerned to women education issues, the movement to get equal education to the women, then, was getting bigger issues to give women opportunities to become doctors, professors and lawyers and other social issues[9]. The achievement of these organizations can be seen when they elevate the women’s issues including education, social and legal reform. The most important of their movement become particular victories of women’s movement was ‘Child Marriage Reform Act 1929’, struggle against purdah and the campaign for women suffrage (Forbes, 1981)[10].
C. Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle
Women in India have participated in Indian’s freedom struggle before achieving independent in 1947. Women’s movement seemed parallel with the emergence of Indian nationalism including the non-cooperation movement known as Gandhi’s movement. The involvement of women in Indian’s freedom struggle can be seen when women also supported the ‘Swadeshi’ movement. As Forbes wrote; in 1905, the British partitioned the province of Bengal that women joined men in protesting this division by boycotting foreign goods and buying only ‘Swadeshi’ goods, that is goods produce in the province of Bengal[11].
Furthermore, Swadeshi’s vow that promoted by Gandhi located all around India. As Gandhi traveled and spoke. He urged women to boycott foreign cloth, spin, and goods. Women who met Gandhi and listen to his speech took off their jewelry immediately and raise donation up to Rs20,000 for supporting the India independency struggle[12]. Another form of women’s movement can be seen when woman decided to have their own political organization known as Rashtriya Stree Sangha (RSS)[13]. RSS was found in 1921 and had risen in Satyagraha atmosphere in which women’s role in public sphere supported by Gandhi to more active in his movement. The members of RSS were required to joint the District Congress Committee. The Bengali Congress leader; C,.R. Das urged women to be ready to leave their home to serve the country. By November 1921, 1,000 Bombay women were demonstrating against the Prince of Wales’s visit to India[14]. In this point, it can be seen that women make some activities outside, in the public sphere in order to against the British administration.
Previously, nationalist movement in India has a spirit known as ‘Bande Mataram’, (Hail to the Motherland). This is a symbol of awakening of the nation, and it is linking the womanhood with nationalism. The large participation of women can be seen through protest demonstration and supported Gandhi’s movement. Gandhi believed that non-violent resistance to British rule is suitable for women compare to men as that required moral courage and determination more than sheer physical strength[15]. Gandhi immediately recognized the value of having women form picket line in order against the British rule. For instance, the arrest of respectable women was viewed as an appropriate tactic to shame men into joining the protest against British[16]. The women’s movement went together until Independent achieve in 1947. Therefore, it can be said that the achievement to become Independent country were contributed by women’s role.
III. Women’s Movement in Post Colonial
Women ’s movements in post colonial continue on some various issues but the movement committed fighters for a better, and safer for women. In this part, I divide the women’s movement including women’s activities during recovery partition, Telangana movement, involve in political arena and current issues about violence,
A. Involve in Recovery after Partition
After gaining the independence in 1947, the appearance of women’s movement in the early freedom still contributed to recovery women who became a victim in partition. The partition between India and Pakistan caused large number of women suffered from this condition; it was about 50,000 Muslim women in India and 33,000 non-Muslim Women in Pakistan between 12 years old and 35 years old were abducted[17].
The Indian and Pakistan government took responsible to recovery the women who become victims[18]. However, the government effort needed help from the other social worker organizations. In the case of restoration of women who victimized; women being kidnapped and raped during partition, a woman activist, Mridula Sarabhai played important role. As a social worker, Mridula led to support women, recovery of adducted women in a various activities including giving moral support and spirit to the women[19]. She organized and did special treatment in recovering the women who abducted during partition. Her efforts in recovering women raise a high debate between people and official of India and Pakistan. However, Gandhi appreciated with her job, as he said; “If I had a hundred women like Mridula, I could bring about revolution in India”[20],
B. Telangana Movement
Telangana movement in 1948 was a women’s movement in Hyderabad state that promoted by peasant women who struggled for their land, for better wage, abolition of vetti and against exorbitant interested on grain and cash loans[21]. It can be said that the Telangana Movement a revolutionary tradition among the Telugu people in terms of struggling for land right and leads to land reform. This movement involved in huge number of women to pressure the landlord and struggle against cultural dominant.
C. Women in Political Arena
During 1960s to 1970s, some women’s organizations associated with political party. Thus, women’s activist who growth in women’s organization, that affiliated with political party automatically, join in the political field. Many prominent feminist were involved in congress party and government. For instance, All India Democratic of Women Association (AIDWA) affiliates with wings communist party (CPI), and AIWC associated with Congress to the newer Mahila Dakshata Samiti formed as a women’s wing of the Janata Party in 1978[22]. Women’s movements lifted issue such as price raise, sati and syahbano. In this era, some woman’s activists were also form autonomy women’s organization and grass root organization that not affiliated with any political party known as Non-Government Organization (NGO) that occurred because of the women’s issue become international attention[23].
Thus, there are two types of women’s organization with different ways in making movements in India; autonomy organization and affiliate organization. The women’s activists who promote autonomy organization believe that the reason why they make autonomy organization because the party affiliates with women’s organization does not give many opportunities to the women to become a leader and ignore women’s issues, and seen as hierarchical and non-democratic. Thus, independent organization is better. In contrast, the women’s activists who affiliate argue that autonomy is somewhat difficult to reach more women to become their member, incapable of mobilizing mass, mainly middle-class leadership, and rather than become marginalized organization is better to affiliate.
D. Women and Current Issue
Violence against women is a high issue since 1980s. In Bombay some autonomy women’s organization in 1981 formed forum against oppression of women that took up issue of rape (Police and custodial rape), dowry death and harassment of women commuters. The women’s Centre in Bombay, had provide legal help and counseling to women in need[24].
Another current issues of women’s movement are uniform civil code, event still separate, very unclear split and need more attention that more concern to women welfare and equality. The effort to put 33 % quota women in parliament is still become high issue too.
IV. The Limitation of Women’s Movement
A. Limitation before Independent
During colonial India, women’s movement frame in women’s association followed by forming women’s organization. Both of them have some limitations. Even though men gave an opportunity to women and have a goal to ‘empower’ women through formed women’s associations, it seems that their main goal was to help men to run the household with modern style like English middle class. It could be happen because of India at that time under British administration rule. Thus, Indian’s men were somewhat influenced by British lifestyle, especially the men in the middle and upper class. It can be seen also through movie that we watched in the class in January 25, “The Home and the World”. The movie described that the husband who came from noble family wanted his wife to become modern women, and then he gave her opportunities to do activities outside. However, it seemed that there was a mistake, because the wife betrayed him.
Other limitations of women’s associations was formed by men tend to create women in a social work only, not involve in political arena. There was no other ways to create women’s organization by women itself in order to give opportunities to the women to do activities in unlimited field in the public sphere.
The women’s organizations mostly performed by the women in upper caste. Even though they made movement and struggled for female education, social and legal reform issues. It seems that the advantage of the women’s organization just limited to the women in the middle and upper class, contradict with women in lower caste who were not many opportunities to involve in the women’s organization. It is because they were not member of organization and because of caste system. Thus, women in the middle class who became member of organization have benefit for learning how to manage organization and its structure, gaining knowledge about the current issue and political world as they made activities in outside of their house. In general, they got experience during they doing activities in public, as they became member of organization. Unfortunately, these experiences were untouchable by women in lower class.
B. Limitation after Independent
After gaining independence, women’s movements still have limitation. There is a dichotomy between women activist in running their organizations. On one hand, they choose politically affiliate and on another hand, they prefer to autonomy organization. The split of women’s activist and women’s organization is a kind of phenomenon that describes the political system in India is still male dominated and operate hierarchy system. The politicians are not really support women’s activist in many opportunities to put women on the top position and somewhat ignore women’s issues.
It can be understood that the religion, cultural systems that operate caste system in Indian society clearly operate patriarchal system. Therefore, people’s mindset is trapped by the patriarchy’s idea in all aspects of their life. Women’s activist still find obstacles when they are doing their activities to deal with some women issues. The struggle is still going one for women’s activists to reach the gender equality, release the oppression in the social, economic, political and cultural space.
V. Discussion
In order to understand the pattern of social phenomena, such as women’s movement, and to find the correlation between what happened in the past and what is encountered today, studying social movements is important. According to McCarthy and Zald [25], a social movement is defined as “a set of opinion and beliefs in a population representing preferences for changing some elements of social structures or reward distribution or both of society,” Here, the motivation for the movement rests on an expectation of making a change in society. The women’s movement in India describes the participation of women in protest to make a change in society, to give a better life for women.
To analyze any social movement, the first question to examine is how the movement emerged. The movement can be described by three main theories in social movement: Political Opportunities, Framing Process and Resource Mobilization[26]. In a more detail, McAdam and McCarthy explain that Political Opportunities theorists explore the explanation for the movement in the structural level[27]. They argue that since structural conditions constraint the individual consciousness and there is a change in political structure, it possible to create movement. In the case of women’s movement in India, the political situation during British rule had caused them to involve in nationalist movement. In the early independent, women involved as social workers in recovery victim of partition and some women activists involved in congress and government.
Framing process theory describes about collective action of people, that is, why and how individuals come to participate in a movement[28]. One example of women’s movement that using framing process theory can be seen in Telangana movement. Many women participate collectively against the inequality in terms of land right.
Regarding resources mobilization approach, the emergence of social movements is related to mobilization in structural level or organizations. As stated by Zald and McCarthy, “the resources mobilization approach emphasizes both societal support and constraint of social movement phenomena. [29]. In the case of women’s movement in India, resources mobilization is important issues, it can be seen through the different types or organization; one is politically affiliate, this organization easier to find the resource such as member of organization, and creating mobilization. The second one is autonomy organization that prefer to more independent. The leader of this organization from middle class, play in grass root level and seems difficult to catch up many member and make mobilization because they have limitation in resource mobilization.
Conclusion
Women’s movements in India can be seen before and after independent. This movement resemble of the political opportunities, resources mobilization theory and mobilizing structure too. The movement is also have achievements in different field including political arena, social welfare and legal issue such as Child Marriage Reform Act 1929, campaign against Purdah and women’s suffrage. The limitation of women’s movement caused by patriarchal system that tied people’s mindset in India. The caste system is also limited women in getting opportunities, especially in India colonial era. Right now, women’s movements are struggling for justice and equality.
@selinaswati
Bibliography
Forbes, Geraldine, “Women Modern India”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996.
Gupta, Charu, Lecture in Class, Wednesday, March 22, 2006
John D, and Zald, Mayer N, (1987) “Resources Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory,” American Journal of Sociology 82, 6 (May 1997): 12-41. Reprinted in Zald, Mayer N, and John D. McCarthy, eds. Social Movements in an organizational Society, Collected Essays, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, Inc.
Katzenstein, May Faindsond, Organizing Against Violence: Strategies of the Indian Women’s Movement, Pacific Affairs, Vol.62.No.1 (Spring, 1998).
Mc.Adam, Doug, MaCarthy,J.D, and Zald M.N (1996). “Introduction, Opportunities, Mobilizing Structure, and Framing Processes toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movement,” Comparative Perspective on Social Movements; Political opportunities, Mobilizing Structure and Cultural framing. Chambrigde:Chambrigde Univeristy Press.
Mody, Nawaz B, (eds), “Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle”, Allied Publishers Ltd, Mumbai, 2000.
Ray, Raka, notes in Field of Protest, Women’s Movement in India, University of Minnnesota Press, London, 1999.
Sangari & Said (eds) “Recasting women, Essay in Indian Colonial History”, Rutgers University Press, New Jersey, USA.
Katzenstein, May Faindsond, Organizing Against Violence: Strategies of the Indian Women’s Movement, Pacific Affairs, Vol.62.No.1 (Spring, 1998).
West, Guida and Blumberg Rhoda Louis eds, (1990), Women and Social Protest. New York: Oxford University Press,
[1] Forbes, Geraldine, The emergence of Women’s Organizations in “Women Modern India”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 65.
[2] Forbes, op cit. p.66
[3] Forbes, op cit, p.67
[4] Forbes op cit 68
[5] Ibid, P.68
[6] Forbes, op cit. p.72
[7] Forbes op cit P.72-75
[8] Forbes op cit P.75-78
[9] Forbes, op cit. p.80
[10] Ray, Raka, notes of z”Women’s Movement and Political Fields” in Field of Protest, Women’s Movement in India, University of Minnnesota Press, London, 1999, P 179
[11] Forbes, Geraldine, Women in Nationalist movement in “Women Modern India”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 123.
[12] Ibid, p.128.
[13] Ibid, p.126.
[14] Ibid, p126.
[15] Mody, Nawaz B, (eds), “Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle”, Allied Publishers Ltd, Mumbai, 2000, p.51
[16] Forbes, Women in the Nationalist Movement, “Women in Modern India” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 127.
[17] Menon, Ritu & Bhasin, Kamla (1993); “Abducted Women, the State, and Question of Honor, Three perspective on the recovery operation in Post Partition India” Working Paper Series: Gender relations Project, Australia. Pp 6.
[18] Ibid, p.18
[19] Ibid, p.18
[20] Mody, Nawaz B, (eds), “Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle”, Allied Publishers Ltd, Mumbai, 2000, p.135
[21] Sangari & Said (eds) “Recasting women, Essay in Indian Colonial History”, Rutgers University Press, New Jersey, USA, p.188
[22] Katzenstein, May Faindsond, Organizing Against Violence: Strategies of the Indian Women’s Movement, Pacific Affairs, Vol.62.No.1 (Spring, 1998), p.55
[23] Gupta, Lecture in Class, Wednesday, March 22, 2006
[24] Katzenstein, May Faindsond, Organizing Against Violence: Strategies of the Indian Women’s Movement, Pacific Affairs, Vol.62.No.1 (Spring, 1998), p.57
[25] McCarthy, John D, and Zald, Mayer N, (1987) “Resources Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory,” p.1
[26] Mc.Adam, Doug, MaCarthy,J.D, and Zald M.N (1996). “Introduction, Opportunities, Mobilizing Structure, and Framing Processes toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movement,” Comparative Perspective on Social Movements; p.2
[27] Ibid. p.3
[28] Ibid, p.5
[29] Ibid p.4
Women’s movement in India can be seen in a wide ranging ways. They created organization and were linked to the freedom movement against British rule in Indian nationalist movement. They struggle against women’s problem including rape, domestic abuse the right for equal pay, and the right to better health, education and inheritance. The movement highlight that women in India have been involved in the public sphere and issues of women’s right since long time.
The participation of women in the public sphere before and after gaining independence is slightly contradictory with the image portrayed by Western people that those women in South Asia tend to play traditional role as women doing the activities in domestic sphere only. They are often portrayed as women who do the housework, devoted, and self-sacrified.
Women’s movement in colonial India had strong links with nationalist movement. The participation of women in India’s freedom struggle has significant, especially in Gandhi’s movement. After gaining independence, women’s movement in the early freedom still contributed to recovery women who become a victim in partition. Then they are also involved in political arena. Nowadays, women issues including dowry, sati, illiterate, rape, and domestic violence have become triggers to make the movement gaining in equality and against discrimination of women.
However, their movement related to the custom and religion that was attached to the way of thinking of the Indian society. This condition sometimes makes women’s movement become limited. In this paper, I will describe the achievements and limitations of women’s movement in India; I am going to discuss the dynamic of women’s movement in India through women’s association, women’s organizations, and women’s participation in India’s freedom for struggle and post independence. I will study the type of social movement that women brought during their movement. I also will discuss the limitation and obstacle during their movement.
II. Women’s Movement in Colonial India
A. The Emerge of Women’s Association
The existence of women’s organizations is basic of women’s movement, because women’s organization is an instrument to see and analyze a women’s movement. In the case of India, before India gain independent, women’s associations in small group started as an embryo of women’s organization that formed by men within their families and communities[1].
Some examples of women’s association including in Bengal found by Keshub Chandra Sen, the charismatic leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He formed new association for women of their families through develop educational programs, a women’s journal and prayer meeting. Then, there was Arya Mahila Samad in Bombay for the general uplift and enlightenment of women that has goal to bring women in the public world to help during emergencies such as food, famine and plagues[2]. In the Parsee community, there was women’s association known as Stri Zarthosti Mandal (Parsee Women’s Circle). This association had emerged within a-Mr.Naoroji Patuck family. He set up class in his home. In 1903, fifty women enrolled the class, and then the class becomes an organization that has wide range activities in 1920 and 1930s[3]. Another association was Anjuman-e-Khawatin-e-e Islam (The Moslem Women Association) in the Punjab. By 1915, women of the Mian family were playing a leading role in the All Indian Muslim Women’s conference[4].
Those women’s associations were founded by men and are in small scale and local context. The reasons men create the associations for women because some of men who called as reformers feeling deeply touched by the poverty suffered by women[5]. The men’s ideas were brought women to the public work, found good education and can help people who under disaster struck. They hope that women who involve in women’s associations could run their household by having educated and modernized women who are also familiar with social field and charitable area.
B. Women’s Organization and Their Achievements
Realizing that women’s associations have limitation to take action and propose solution about women’s problem, women activists identified that they need permanent association for progressing of women in India. They started to think an organization that concern and discuss the women’s issues was important. They formed women’s organizations in national scale. It means that its scale larger than women associations.
After World War I, there were three major organizations[6]; the Women’s Indian Association (WIA), the National Council of Women in India (NCWI), and the All-India Women’s Conference (AIWC). These organizations emerged between 1917 and 1927. The WIA[7], born in 1917 in Madras, covered members mostly from the Tamil Madar Sangan (Tamil Ladies Association) and had joint with British women in forming the National Indian Association to promote female education. Member of the WIA’ opens to both Indians and Europe. The first presidents of WIA were Annie Bessant and Margaret Cousins, and secretaries were Mrs.Malati Patwardhan, Mrs.Ammu Swaminathan. The WIA competed for women’s attention with the self-respect movement. The self-respect movement had a larger agenda than women’s right; its goal was to establish a society from the domination of the priestly caste, with justice and equality for all human beings. WIA had monthly journal, Stri Dharma, published in English, including article about women published both in Hindi and in Tamil. The second organization, NCWI[8] was a national branch of the International Council of Women. The members of NCWI were women of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta who have network for their various club and association to the International council of women. NCWI led by Mehribai Tata from the Parsee family. The organization’s activities related to educated women and high-class women in upper caste.
AIWC is the most influential women’s organization in women’s movement in India at that time. The AIWC, found in 1927, had large number of member until 25,000 in 1945. At the first, AIWC concerned to women education issues, the movement to get equal education to the women, then, was getting bigger issues to give women opportunities to become doctors, professors and lawyers and other social issues[9]. The achievement of these organizations can be seen when they elevate the women’s issues including education, social and legal reform. The most important of their movement become particular victories of women’s movement was ‘Child Marriage Reform Act 1929’, struggle against purdah and the campaign for women suffrage (Forbes, 1981)[10].
C. Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle
Women in India have participated in Indian’s freedom struggle before achieving independent in 1947. Women’s movement seemed parallel with the emergence of Indian nationalism including the non-cooperation movement known as Gandhi’s movement. The involvement of women in Indian’s freedom struggle can be seen when women also supported the ‘Swadeshi’ movement. As Forbes wrote; in 1905, the British partitioned the province of Bengal that women joined men in protesting this division by boycotting foreign goods and buying only ‘Swadeshi’ goods, that is goods produce in the province of Bengal[11].
Furthermore, Swadeshi’s vow that promoted by Gandhi located all around India. As Gandhi traveled and spoke. He urged women to boycott foreign cloth, spin, and goods. Women who met Gandhi and listen to his speech took off their jewelry immediately and raise donation up to Rs20,000 for supporting the India independency struggle[12]. Another form of women’s movement can be seen when woman decided to have their own political organization known as Rashtriya Stree Sangha (RSS)[13]. RSS was found in 1921 and had risen in Satyagraha atmosphere in which women’s role in public sphere supported by Gandhi to more active in his movement. The members of RSS were required to joint the District Congress Committee. The Bengali Congress leader; C,.R. Das urged women to be ready to leave their home to serve the country. By November 1921, 1,000 Bombay women were demonstrating against the Prince of Wales’s visit to India[14]. In this point, it can be seen that women make some activities outside, in the public sphere in order to against the British administration.
Previously, nationalist movement in India has a spirit known as ‘Bande Mataram’, (Hail to the Motherland). This is a symbol of awakening of the nation, and it is linking the womanhood with nationalism. The large participation of women can be seen through protest demonstration and supported Gandhi’s movement. Gandhi believed that non-violent resistance to British rule is suitable for women compare to men as that required moral courage and determination more than sheer physical strength[15]. Gandhi immediately recognized the value of having women form picket line in order against the British rule. For instance, the arrest of respectable women was viewed as an appropriate tactic to shame men into joining the protest against British[16]. The women’s movement went together until Independent achieve in 1947. Therefore, it can be said that the achievement to become Independent country were contributed by women’s role.
III. Women’s Movement in Post Colonial
Women ’s movements in post colonial continue on some various issues but the movement committed fighters for a better, and safer for women. In this part, I divide the women’s movement including women’s activities during recovery partition, Telangana movement, involve in political arena and current issues about violence,
A. Involve in Recovery after Partition
After gaining the independence in 1947, the appearance of women’s movement in the early freedom still contributed to recovery women who became a victim in partition. The partition between India and Pakistan caused large number of women suffered from this condition; it was about 50,000 Muslim women in India and 33,000 non-Muslim Women in Pakistan between 12 years old and 35 years old were abducted[17].
The Indian and Pakistan government took responsible to recovery the women who become victims[18]. However, the government effort needed help from the other social worker organizations. In the case of restoration of women who victimized; women being kidnapped and raped during partition, a woman activist, Mridula Sarabhai played important role. As a social worker, Mridula led to support women, recovery of adducted women in a various activities including giving moral support and spirit to the women[19]. She organized and did special treatment in recovering the women who abducted during partition. Her efforts in recovering women raise a high debate between people and official of India and Pakistan. However, Gandhi appreciated with her job, as he said; “If I had a hundred women like Mridula, I could bring about revolution in India”[20],
B. Telangana Movement
Telangana movement in 1948 was a women’s movement in Hyderabad state that promoted by peasant women who struggled for their land, for better wage, abolition of vetti and against exorbitant interested on grain and cash loans[21]. It can be said that the Telangana Movement a revolutionary tradition among the Telugu people in terms of struggling for land right and leads to land reform. This movement involved in huge number of women to pressure the landlord and struggle against cultural dominant.
C. Women in Political Arena
During 1960s to 1970s, some women’s organizations associated with political party. Thus, women’s activist who growth in women’s organization, that affiliated with political party automatically, join in the political field. Many prominent feminist were involved in congress party and government. For instance, All India Democratic of Women Association (AIDWA) affiliates with wings communist party (CPI), and AIWC associated with Congress to the newer Mahila Dakshata Samiti formed as a women’s wing of the Janata Party in 1978[22]. Women’s movements lifted issue such as price raise, sati and syahbano. In this era, some woman’s activists were also form autonomy women’s organization and grass root organization that not affiliated with any political party known as Non-Government Organization (NGO) that occurred because of the women’s issue become international attention[23].
Thus, there are two types of women’s organization with different ways in making movements in India; autonomy organization and affiliate organization. The women’s activists who promote autonomy organization believe that the reason why they make autonomy organization because the party affiliates with women’s organization does not give many opportunities to the women to become a leader and ignore women’s issues, and seen as hierarchical and non-democratic. Thus, independent organization is better. In contrast, the women’s activists who affiliate argue that autonomy is somewhat difficult to reach more women to become their member, incapable of mobilizing mass, mainly middle-class leadership, and rather than become marginalized organization is better to affiliate.
D. Women and Current Issue
Violence against women is a high issue since 1980s. In Bombay some autonomy women’s organization in 1981 formed forum against oppression of women that took up issue of rape (Police and custodial rape), dowry death and harassment of women commuters. The women’s Centre in Bombay, had provide legal help and counseling to women in need[24].
Another current issues of women’s movement are uniform civil code, event still separate, very unclear split and need more attention that more concern to women welfare and equality. The effort to put 33 % quota women in parliament is still become high issue too.
IV. The Limitation of Women’s Movement
A. Limitation before Independent
During colonial India, women’s movement frame in women’s association followed by forming women’s organization. Both of them have some limitations. Even though men gave an opportunity to women and have a goal to ‘empower’ women through formed women’s associations, it seems that their main goal was to help men to run the household with modern style like English middle class. It could be happen because of India at that time under British administration rule. Thus, Indian’s men were somewhat influenced by British lifestyle, especially the men in the middle and upper class. It can be seen also through movie that we watched in the class in January 25, “The Home and the World”. The movie described that the husband who came from noble family wanted his wife to become modern women, and then he gave her opportunities to do activities outside. However, it seemed that there was a mistake, because the wife betrayed him.
Other limitations of women’s associations was formed by men tend to create women in a social work only, not involve in political arena. There was no other ways to create women’s organization by women itself in order to give opportunities to the women to do activities in unlimited field in the public sphere.
The women’s organizations mostly performed by the women in upper caste. Even though they made movement and struggled for female education, social and legal reform issues. It seems that the advantage of the women’s organization just limited to the women in the middle and upper class, contradict with women in lower caste who were not many opportunities to involve in the women’s organization. It is because they were not member of organization and because of caste system. Thus, women in the middle class who became member of organization have benefit for learning how to manage organization and its structure, gaining knowledge about the current issue and political world as they made activities in outside of their house. In general, they got experience during they doing activities in public, as they became member of organization. Unfortunately, these experiences were untouchable by women in lower class.
B. Limitation after Independent
After gaining independence, women’s movements still have limitation. There is a dichotomy between women activist in running their organizations. On one hand, they choose politically affiliate and on another hand, they prefer to autonomy organization. The split of women’s activist and women’s organization is a kind of phenomenon that describes the political system in India is still male dominated and operate hierarchy system. The politicians are not really support women’s activist in many opportunities to put women on the top position and somewhat ignore women’s issues.
It can be understood that the religion, cultural systems that operate caste system in Indian society clearly operate patriarchal system. Therefore, people’s mindset is trapped by the patriarchy’s idea in all aspects of their life. Women’s activist still find obstacles when they are doing their activities to deal with some women issues. The struggle is still going one for women’s activists to reach the gender equality, release the oppression in the social, economic, political and cultural space.
V. Discussion
In order to understand the pattern of social phenomena, such as women’s movement, and to find the correlation between what happened in the past and what is encountered today, studying social movements is important. According to McCarthy and Zald [25], a social movement is defined as “a set of opinion and beliefs in a population representing preferences for changing some elements of social structures or reward distribution or both of society,” Here, the motivation for the movement rests on an expectation of making a change in society. The women’s movement in India describes the participation of women in protest to make a change in society, to give a better life for women.
To analyze any social movement, the first question to examine is how the movement emerged. The movement can be described by three main theories in social movement: Political Opportunities, Framing Process and Resource Mobilization[26]. In a more detail, McAdam and McCarthy explain that Political Opportunities theorists explore the explanation for the movement in the structural level[27]. They argue that since structural conditions constraint the individual consciousness and there is a change in political structure, it possible to create movement. In the case of women’s movement in India, the political situation during British rule had caused them to involve in nationalist movement. In the early independent, women involved as social workers in recovery victim of partition and some women activists involved in congress and government.
Framing process theory describes about collective action of people, that is, why and how individuals come to participate in a movement[28]. One example of women’s movement that using framing process theory can be seen in Telangana movement. Many women participate collectively against the inequality in terms of land right.
Regarding resources mobilization approach, the emergence of social movements is related to mobilization in structural level or organizations. As stated by Zald and McCarthy, “the resources mobilization approach emphasizes both societal support and constraint of social movement phenomena. [29]. In the case of women’s movement in India, resources mobilization is important issues, it can be seen through the different types or organization; one is politically affiliate, this organization easier to find the resource such as member of organization, and creating mobilization. The second one is autonomy organization that prefer to more independent. The leader of this organization from middle class, play in grass root level and seems difficult to catch up many member and make mobilization because they have limitation in resource mobilization.
Conclusion
Women’s movements in India can be seen before and after independent. This movement resemble of the political opportunities, resources mobilization theory and mobilizing structure too. The movement is also have achievements in different field including political arena, social welfare and legal issue such as Child Marriage Reform Act 1929, campaign against Purdah and women’s suffrage. The limitation of women’s movement caused by patriarchal system that tied people’s mindset in India. The caste system is also limited women in getting opportunities, especially in India colonial era. Right now, women’s movements are struggling for justice and equality.
@selinaswati
Bibliography
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[1] Forbes, Geraldine, The emergence of Women’s Organizations in “Women Modern India”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 65.
[2] Forbes, op cit. p.66
[3] Forbes, op cit, p.67
[4] Forbes op cit 68
[5] Ibid, P.68
[6] Forbes, op cit. p.72
[7] Forbes op cit P.72-75
[8] Forbes op cit P.75-78
[9] Forbes, op cit. p.80
[10] Ray, Raka, notes of z”Women’s Movement and Political Fields” in Field of Protest, Women’s Movement in India, University of Minnnesota Press, London, 1999, P 179
[11] Forbes, Geraldine, Women in Nationalist movement in “Women Modern India”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 123.
[12] Ibid, p.128.
[13] Ibid, p.126.
[14] Ibid, p126.
[15] Mody, Nawaz B, (eds), “Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle”, Allied Publishers Ltd, Mumbai, 2000, p.51
[16] Forbes, Women in the Nationalist Movement, “Women in Modern India” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 127.
[17] Menon, Ritu & Bhasin, Kamla (1993); “Abducted Women, the State, and Question of Honor, Three perspective on the recovery operation in Post Partition India” Working Paper Series: Gender relations Project, Australia. Pp 6.
[18] Ibid, p.18
[19] Ibid, p.18
[20] Mody, Nawaz B, (eds), “Women in Indian’s Freedom Struggle”, Allied Publishers Ltd, Mumbai, 2000, p.135
[21] Sangari & Said (eds) “Recasting women, Essay in Indian Colonial History”, Rutgers University Press, New Jersey, USA, p.188
[22] Katzenstein, May Faindsond, Organizing Against Violence: Strategies of the Indian Women’s Movement, Pacific Affairs, Vol.62.No.1 (Spring, 1998), p.55
[23] Gupta, Lecture in Class, Wednesday, March 22, 2006
[24] Katzenstein, May Faindsond, Organizing Against Violence: Strategies of the Indian Women’s Movement, Pacific Affairs, Vol.62.No.1 (Spring, 1998), p.57
[25] McCarthy, John D, and Zald, Mayer N, (1987) “Resources Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory,” p.1
[26] Mc.Adam, Doug, MaCarthy,J.D, and Zald M.N (1996). “Introduction, Opportunities, Mobilizing Structure, and Framing Processes toward a Synthetic, Comparative Perspective on Social Movement,” Comparative Perspective on Social Movements; p.2
[27] Ibid. p.3
[28] Ibid, p.5
[29] Ibid p.4
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